Revisión n.º 63 (versión actual) editada por equipo editorial de itsvegan el sáb, 31 oct 2026 · 11:05 · “Updated by the itsvegan editors”
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Dairy Industry

Quick answer: Dairy production is the farming of mammals — mostly cows, but also buffalo, goats, sheep and camels — for milk, which is then processed into products such as cheese, butter, cream and yoghurt. Because a cow only produces milk after giving birth, commercial dairy relies on getting cows pregnant roughly once a year, usually by artificial insemination; calves are typically separated from their mothers early so the milk can be sold, and cows are slaughtered when their yields fall. Global milk production reached about 930 million tonnes in 2022, according to the FAO.

Key facts

  • Output: world milk production grew from 524 million tonnes in 1992 to 930 million tonnes in 2022; India is the largest producer with 22% of the total, followed by the US, Pakistan, China and Brazil (FAO).
  • Pregnancy is required: like all mammals, cows lactate after giving birth, so dairy cows are bred repeatedly.
  • Calf separation: the European Food Safety Authority recommends keeping the calf with its mother for at least one day after birth and progressively longer contact, which indicates that earlier separation is common practice (EFSA, 2023).
  • Surplus calves: calves not needed to replace the milking herd, mostly males, “are often sold within the first week of life” (Cheng et al., 2025).
  • Main welfare issues assessed by EFSA include lameness, mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, and metabolic disorders (EFSA, 2023).
  • Climate: dairy and beef cattle produce methane from digestion and manure; across studies, cow’s milk has higher emissions, land and water use per litre than common plant milks (Our World in Data).

The dairy industry is the sector of agriculture concerned with producing milk and milk-based products such as cheese, butter, cream and yoghurt. Most commercial milk worldwide comes from cattle, with smaller amounts from buffalo, goats, sheep and camels. Vegans avoid dairy products, and the dairy industry is a frequent subject of debate in animal ethics because, unlike meat, many people assume that producing milk does not involve harm to animals.

How dairy production works

Like other mammals, cows produce milk to feed their young. To produce milk commercially, dairy cows must give birth regularly. A typical sequence in modern, intensive dairy farming is:

  1. A heifer (a young female that has not yet calved) is usually first inseminated, most often by artificial insemination, at around 15 months of age and gives birth at roughly two years old.
  2. After the birth, the calf is generally separated from its mother, often within hours or days, so that the milk can be collected for human consumption.
  3. The cow is milked, typically two or three times per day, for around ten months.
  4. She is re-inseminated a few months after giving birth, so that a new pregnancy overlaps with the current lactation.
  5. Once her milk production declines or she develops health or fertility problems, she is usually sent to slaughter, commonly after a few lactations and at an age far below the natural lifespan of cattle.

From farm to shop

After milking, raw milk is cooled on the farm and collected by tanker. At the dairy it is usually tested, standardised to a set fat content, pasteurised (heated to kill harmful bacteria), often homogenised (so the cream does not separate) and packed — or used to make cheese, butter, cream, yoghurt, milk powder, whey and casein. Whey and casein, by-products of cheese and butter-making, end up as ingredients in many processed foods, which is why vegans check labels for them (see is whey vegan? and is casein vegan?).

StageWhat happens
BreedingArtificial insemination; pregnancy lasts about nine months
CalvingCalf born; usually separated from the mother early
LactationCow milked two or three times a day, commonly for around ten months
Re-breedingCow inseminated again a few months after calving
Dry periodMilking stops for several weeks before the next calving
CullingCow slaughtered when yield, health or fertility declines, often after a few lactations

Fate of calves

Because only female calves can become dairy cows, male calves are a by-product of milk production. Depending on the country and market conditions, male calves may be raised for veal or beef or, in some cases, killed shortly after birth. Some female calves are raised as replacement dairy cows, while others are sold for meat. Surplus dairy calves are often sold within their first week of life and can receive suboptimal early care (Cheng et al., 2025).

Separating calves from their mothers has been the subject of research and debate. In its 2023 opinion on calf welfare, EFSA recommended that calves be kept with their dams for a minimum of one day after birth, with longer contact implemented progressively, while noting that more research is needed to guide this in practice (EFSA, 2023). A small number of farms practise “cow-calf contact” systems in which calves remain with their mothers for longer.

Welfare concerns

Animal welfare groups and some veterinary researchers have raised concerns about practices in intensive dairy production, including:

  • Mastitis, a painful inflammation of the udder that is one of the most common diseases in dairy cattle.
  • Lameness, often associated with hard flooring and housing conditions.
  • Zero-grazing, in which cows are housed indoors year-round with little or no access to pasture.
  • High yields from selective breeding, which have been associated with metabolic and fertility problems.
  • Disbudding and dehorning of calves, sometimes without adequate pain relief.

EFSA’s 2023 opinion on dairy cow welfare examined lameness, mastitis, restriction of movement and resting problems, inability to perform comfort behaviour and metabolic disorders across tie-stall, cubicle, open-bedded and outdoor-access housing in Europe (EFSA, 2023). Some of these practices are regulated differently across countries, and welfare standards vary between farms. Organic and pasture-based systems generally require more outdoor access, but still involve breeding, calf separation in most cases, and slaughter. Vegans therefore typically regard all commercial dairy as incompatible with ethical veganism, regardless of welfare standards.

Environmental considerations

Dairy cattle contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane from enteric fermentation and emissions from manure. The large 2018 meta-analysis by Joseph Poore and Thomas Nemecek published in Science found that, across a wide range of producers, cow’s milk generally had higher greenhouse gas emissions, land use and water use per litre than plant-based milks such as soy, oat, almond and rice (Poore & Nemecek, 2018; summarised by Our World in Data). See environmental impact of animal agriculture.

Health and nutrition

Dairy is a significant source of calcium, protein, iodine and vitamin b12 in many Western diets. People avoiding dairy can obtain these nutrients from fortified plant based milks, calcium-set tofu, other plant foods and supplements. A large proportion of the world’s adult population has reduced ability to digest lactose, the main sugar in milk, though the prevalence varies widely between populations.

Alternatives

The market for dairy alternatives has grown substantially since the 2010s. Common alternatives include:

  • plant based milks made from soy, oats, almonds, rice, coconut and peas
  • vegan cheese made from nuts, soy, coconut oil or starches
  • plant-based yoghurts, butters, creams and ice creams

In the European Union, a 2017 ruling of the Court of Justice held that terms such as “milk”, “butter” and “cheese” are generally reserved for animal products, so plant-based alternatives are often labelled as “drinks” or similar.

Frequently asked questions

What is dairy production?

Dairy production is the farming of cows and other mammals for milk and the processing of that milk into products such as cheese, butter, cream and yoghurt. It involves breeding, calving, milking, and processing steps such as pasteurisation.

Do cows have to be pregnant to produce milk?

Yes. Cows begin producing milk after giving birth, so dairy cows are usually made pregnant about once a year, most often by artificial insemination, to keep milk production going.

What happens to male calves in the dairy industry?

Male calves cannot produce milk. Depending on the country, they are raised for veal or beef or, in some cases, killed shortly after birth. Many are sold within their first week.

Is organic or “high-welfare” dairy vegan?

No. All dairy comes from animals. Organic and pasture-based systems often give cows more outdoor access, but they still involve repeated pregnancies, usually calf separation, and slaughter.

What are the alternatives to dairy?

Fortified plant based milks, vegan cheese, plant-based yoghurts, butters and ice creams. Calcium, iodine and vitamin B12 that people often get from dairy can come from fortified plant foods or supplements.

Sources

Last reviewed: 31 October 2026.

See also